[Abstract]Languagecommunicationisanimportantmethodtomaintainsocialrelationship,sopeopleoftenusetheindirectorpleasantexpressionsintheplaceofthoseconsideredunpleasant,rudeoroffensiveincommunication.Itisnotonlyalinguisticphenomenon,butalsoakindofsocialphenomenonandculturalphenomenon.Itreflectssomekindsofcorrespondingculturaltraditions.Thispapermainlyfocusesonthewaysofexpression,themajorfunctionandthesocialinfluenceofeuphemisminEnglish.AndthefirstpartelaboratesuponthedifferentexpressionsofeuphemisminEnglish,dividedintofourparts:figureofspeech,semanticmethod,thevarietyofpronunciationandspellingformandgrammar.Andthenitmakesstudytheapplianceofeuphemismonthreefunctions:avoidance,courtesy,disguiseinsociallife,anddiscussesthepositiveandnegativeinfluencesofeuphemism.Toknowthesecouldhelpustounderstandthemodeofthinking,socialvalues,moralconcepts,andculturaltraditionsinEnglish-speakingcountry,andcouldimproveourlanguagecommunicativeability.
[Keywords]:Euphemism,application,socialinfluence,positive,negative
【关键词】委婉语；运用；社会影响;积极；消极
1.Introduction
EuphemismisoriginallyfromGreek,meaning,“speakwithgookwords”.“eu”means“wellorsoundingwell”;“pheme”means“speech”.ItsdefinitioninOxfordEnglishDictionaryis“(exampleofthe)useofpleasant,mild,orindirectwordsorphrasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones.”[1]
Theappearanceofeuphemismisbasedontworeasons:oneaimstotaketheplaceof“taboo”.Whengivingupatabooword,peoplewillfindanothernewonetotaketheplaceofit,whichcreatesaeuphemism.Theotheraimstoavoidoffensivenessduringthecommunication.Itisafigureofrhetoricbywhichanunpleasantoroffensivethingisdescribedorreferredtobyamilderterm.
InEnglishlanguage,euphemismiswidelyusedinthedailycommunications.Inordertoachievetheaimof“taboo”,itisusedtoavoidtheunpleasantthing;inordertoachievetheaimof“politeness”,itisusedtoavoidtheinelegantthings[2],whicharethetwosocialpsychologicalbasisoftheemergenceofeuphemism.Euphemismisoneoftheimportantpartsoffigureofspeech.Itisnotonlyalinguisticphenomenon,butalsoakindofsocialphenomenonandculturalphenomenon.Euphemisminusediffersfrompersontoperson,fromprofessiontoprofession,evenfromclasstoclass[3],That’swhysometimesthemeaningofsomeeuphemismswillpuzzleyouifyoudonotknowthebackgroundofEnglishculture.TograsptheEnglisheuphemismcannotonlyhelpusopenoureyes,butstrengthenourabilityofreadingcomprehension.ThispaperaimstodiscusstheapplicationofeuphemisminEnglishandtomakeacknowledgeofitssocialinfluence,whichcouldhelpususeeuphemisminacorrectway.
2.Waystoexpresseuphemism
2.1.Figureofspeech
2.1.1.Metonymy.
Sometimes,someeuphemismsarefrequentlyusedinsteadoftheoriginalwords;peoplegraduallyforgettheireuphemisticidentities.Theyarenotusedintermsofeuphemismsbuthavetheirownindependentmeanings.Forinstance,takeabove-mentioned“poppy”,nowifyoulookupthiswordinthedictionary,youcanfindthemeaningof“opium”,ithaslostitseuphemisticfunction.And,ifyoudonotknowthebackground,youcannotknowthemeaningof“Napoleon”and“Borstal”.Therefore,wecanseetheimportanceofknowingthebackgroundofEnglishculture.Itcanhelpyoualottorecognizeandunderstandtherealmeaningofeuphemismandmakegooduseofit.
2.1.2.Metaphor
Tousemetaphorcaneasilyavoidtheoffensivethings.Forexample,whereforeitisbettertobeaguestofthelaw,which,thoughconductedbyrules,doesnotmeddleundulywithagentleman’sprivateaffairs.(O.Henry,TheCopandtheAnthem)“tobeaguestofthelaw”isaeuphemismfor“tobeinprison”[4],Manyeuphemismsfor“death”werecreatedbywayofmetaphor,suchasgoingtohislonghome,tobehomeandfree,togotosleep,tosleepthelong(oreternal,never-ending)sleep,torestinpeace,tobeatrest,togotoHeaven(orParadise),tojoinone’sancestors,tobegatheredtoone’sfathers,tojointheimmortals.Moreexamplesare:aged→sunsetyears,tobepoor→tobepinched,tohaveimpropersexualintercoursewithgirls(especiallymaiden)→todeflower;todegenerate→togoastray;breast→milkbottles;catamenia→theredflag;tobepregnant→tobeonthenest;themoneyofbribery→grease;tobribe→togreasesomebody’spalm;handcuffs→bracelets.
2.1.3Personification
People’snamesareoftenusedtoreplacetaboowords.Forexample,“BigHarry”refersto“heroin”because“Harry”and“heroin”havethesameinitials.“Lavatory”alsohasmanyeuphemisticalexpressions.In19thcentury,itwascalled“myauntJones”,“Mrs.Jones”,“SirJohn”,“SirHarry”,“theHenry”,whilein20thcentury,itwascalled“jakes”,“john”etc.Butthelattercolorofpersonificationbecomesweak.Thefirstlettercanbewritteninsmallletter.Peoplejustuseitasacommonnoun.Infact,theyhavelosttheeuphemisticfunction.Therearemanyhumorouswaystoexpresscatameniaintermsofpersonification:1)Myfriendhascome.2)Ihaveavisitor.3)Mycousins/countrycousinshavecome.4)Myauntie/grandmotherhascometostay.5)Littlesisterishere.6)I’vegotpaintersin.7)thecardinalhascome.
2.1.4.Analogy
Intheeuphemismsforoccupationpeopleoftenuseanalogy,whichmakesthehumblenamemoreelegant[5],Forexample,“chef”isaeuphemismfor“cook”.ItisborrowedfromFrenchword“chefdecuisine”.“Beautician”refersto“hairdresser”;“garbologist”refersto“garbagecollector”;“mortician”refersto“undertaker”.Therealsoappearedsomebeautifulnamesforbarbershop:hairsalon,beautyparlour,andstylistparlour.
2.1.5.Ellipsis
Thatistoomittheoffensivewordswhilespeaking,suchastobeexpecting(ababy),tohave(sexual)relationswithsomebody,totakeprecautions(againstpregnancy),todepart(fromthisworld).Ofcourse,suchphrasesshouldbeputintoacertaincontext,whichcanexpressthemeaningofeuphemisms.
2.1.6.Periphrasis
2.2.Semanticmethod
2.2.1.Synonym
Forexample,“tight”isusedinsteadof“stingy”;“thrift”isusedinsteadof“economical”,“defecate”replaces“shift”and“urine”replaces“piss”.And“mad”isreplacedby“crazy”,“insane”,and“lunatic”.Sucheuphemismaimstousetheappreciativetermtotaketheplaceofthederogatoryterm.
2.2.2.Negation
Sucheuphemismusesthecontrarytermtoexpressthesamemeaning,anditcouldbemoreusefulthansynonyminreplacingthetabooandmakepeoplemoreunderstandableandcomfortable.Wecouldcallstupidpeopleunwisepeople.“Afatchance”means“aslimchance”and“findwords”standsfor“badwords”
2.2.3.Vaguewordsandexpressions
Thatistomaketheharsheroroffensivewordsmoregeneral.Forexample,ifsomebodyhassomementalproblems,wecanexpressitlikethis:Hisroofleaksalittle;hehasascrewloose/missing;heisnotathome.Thereareotherexampleswhichusevagueexpressions,suchasdisease→trouble,problem;tocomeacrossanunfortunatething→tohaveanaccident;V.D.(venerealdisease)→secretdisease;tolivetogetherillegally→tocohabit;intrauterinedevice→ring;torapesomebody→todoviolencetosomebody;prostitute→awomanofthestreets,awomanofacertainclass,apaintedwoman,aladyofthenightgirl;toentertainwhorehousevisitors→toseecompany;whorehouse→house;asquint→anobliquityofvision;amanofbadtaste→amanofdoubtfultaste;strike→industrialaction;thepoor→theunderprivileged,thedisadvantaged;indebt→indifficulties;buttocks→behind,bottom,backsides;homosexual→queer;sexualintercourse→intimacy;tobekilled→tobeputtosleep.
2.2.4.Loanwords
2.2.5.Understatement
Thatistostatesomeseriousthingsinatemperatewayinordertoavoidbeingawkwardandstrident[9].Forexample,“Shewasneitherquiteprettynorquietplain.”“Plain”isusedinsteadof“ugly”;“MycousinJimmywasabitsoftinthehead.”“Softinthehead”means“mad”;“Theboyusedtotakethingswithoutpermissionandhasjustbeenoutoftherehabilitationhomeinthecountry.”(steal,detentionhome);theperiodofeconomicdepression→aperiodofeconomicadjustment;moneyforbribery→kickback,commission;poorfamilies→lowincomefamilies;fallingbehind→lessadvanced;retardedchildren→lessablechildren;anuglygirl→aplainorhomelygirl;disabled→physicallyhandicapped;tobeill→tolookoffcolor,tofeelunwelloruncomfortable;treatment→healthcare;oldage→advancedinage.
2.3.Thevarietyofpronunciationandspellingform
Englishisanalphabeticwriting.Thevariationofphoneticformcanavoidtheoriginalconceptioninacertaindegreeandachievethepurposeofeuphemism.1)Compounding:gezunda(goesunder).2)Acronym:DA(drugaddict),KG(knowgambler),B.O.T(balanceoftime),J.D(juveniledelinquent),PandQ(peaceandquiet).3)Back-formation:burgle(burgler)4)chipping:vamp(vampire),homo(homosexual),gents(Gentlemen’sRoom),andladies(LadiesRoom)[10].
Thereisaninterestingexample:“laboratory”,theoriginalstresswasonthefirstsyllable.Butitsoundedsimilarlyto“lavatory”.Inordertoavoidtheunpleasantconnection,thestresswasmovedtothesecondsyllable.SuchphenomenoniscalledAssonance.Thatistomakeuseofortocreatewords,whichhavethesameorsimilarpronunciationswitheuphemisticwordsinordertoachievethepurposeofeuphemism.Therefore,inEnglishthereisawayofpersonificationtoexpress“catamenia”:Thecaptainisathome.Itisbecause“captain”isassonantwiththemedicalscienceterm“catamenia”.InoralEnglish,“pee”isusedtoreferto“piss”,whichhasthesamereason.
2.4.Grammar
Thatistousepasttense,negativesentencetoexpresseuphemism.Forexample,Icanseebyyourfacethatyoudon’tthinkthatwaswise.Thenegativeformmeans“thinkingthatwasfoolish”;“Howdowefeeltoday”Using“we”insteadof“you”showsthemoderationandgeniality.“Iwantedto…”“Iwondered…”oftentaketheplaceof“Iwantto…”“Iwonder…”SuchexpressionisoftenusedinoralEnglish.[11]
3TheSocialInfluencesofEuphemism
EuphemismiswidelyusedinAmericaandBritain.Ithasalonghistory.Neweuphemismsemergeinanendlessstream.Accordingtoitsappliedfunctions,I’dliketodivideitintothreeparts:Avoidance,CourtesyandDisguise.Throughstudyingthethreefunctions,wecanunderstandthewesternsociety’sviewonvalueandmorality.
3.1.Avoidance
3.1.1.TheeuphemismsforGodanddevil
TheTenCommandmentsofBiblehasprescribed,“ThoushaltnottakethenameoftheLordthyGodinvain;fortheLordwillnotholdhimguiltlessthattakethhisnameinvain.”That’swhytherearesomanyeuphemisms.InoralEnglish,using“God”causallywouldbeconsideredblasphmous.Ifsomeonesay“Goddamniit”heistreasonandheresy,andwouldbepunished[14].Someofthemadoptthesemanticmethod,suchastheCreator,theMaker,theSupreme(Being),HolyOne,theAlmighty,theEternal,OurFather,theSaviour,KingofKings,Lordoflords,theLightoftheWorld,SovereignoftheUniverse.Someofthemadoptthephoneticmethod,suchasGad,Gosh,Golly,Godfreyetc.Therearemanyeuphemismsfor“thedevil”,suchasoldenemy,oldNed,OldNick,OldOne,Ole’un(OldMan),OldScratch,OldSerpent,theOldBoyetc.Forexample,“HewasfrightenedasifOldHarrywerebeforehim.”InEnglishtheyoftenuse“heck”insteadof“hell”.“hell”hasotherexpressions:“theotherplace,averyuncomfortableplace,theotherwayetc.”Forexample,“WewereallgoingdirecttoHeaven;wewereallgoingdirecttheotherway.”[15]
3.1.2Theeuphemismsfordeath
Euphemismisoftencausedinspeakingofthingsthatarepainfulanddistressingtothinkabout.Deathisoneofexpressions.Theeuphemismsfordeathareawidelyuseditem,especiallywhenitconcernsone’sownfamiliesandfriends.Ithasalotofexpressions[16].Forexample,ifanythingshouldhappentome(=whenIdie);topassaway/on;todepart;togotosleep;tobenolongerwithus;tobeinterred.“Death”alsohassomehumorousexpressions:“topopoff;topushupdaisies;tocashinone’schips;tokickthebucket”.“Death”alsohasanintimaterelationshipwithreligion.TherearemanyeuphemismsfromBible,forexample,toreturntodust/earth;topaythedebtofnature;tobecalledtoGod/toanswerthefinalsummons;togotoheaven;tobeatpeace,tobeasleepintheArmsofGod;toyielduptheghost;tolaunchintoeternity;tohaveone’snameinscribedintheBookoflifeetc.Somewords,whichconcern“death”,alsohaveeuphemisticexpressions.Forexample,“coffin”iscalled“casket”;“deadbody”iscalled“earthlyremains”;“funeral”iscalled“memorialservice”;“graveyard”iscalled“memorygarden”.
3.1.3.Theeuphemismsforillness,naturalandman-madecalamities
Mostwesternersavoidtalkingaboutsomeseriousdiseases.Forinstance,“terminallyill”isaeuphemismfor“cancer”;AmericanandBritishnewspapersoftenname“syphilis”as“socialdisease”;“leprosy”iscalled“Hansen’sdisease”;“constipation”iscalled“irregularity”.“tumour”iscalled“agrowth”;“commitsuicide”iscalled“self-deliveranceorself-violence”.Peopleoftenuseinitialingtoavoidtalkaboutsomediseasesdirectly,suchasAIDS(AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome);BigC(Cancer);VD(VenerealDisease)etc.“todiebecauseofacrash”iscalled“oldNewtontookhim”;“hara-kiri”iscalled“happydispatch”;“anunnaturaldeath”iscalled“tobeblownacrossthecreek”
3.1.4.Theeuphemismsforsex
3.1.5.Theeuphemismsforbirth
ContrarytotheChinesetraditionalopinion,inwesterncountries,“beingpregnant”and“havingababy”arenotconsidered“ablessedevent”.AustralianEnglishevencallit“ablastedevent”.InAmerica,“toweartheapronhigh”,“towear/havethebellyhigh”areeuphemismsfor“tobepregnant”,whileinBritain,“towearthebustlewrong”isaeuphemismfor“tobepregnant”.In19thcentury,aslimwaististheidealfigureforBritishwomen.Therefore,“tobepregnant”isalsocalled“tobeawkward”,“inabadway/shape”;“tomakeawomanpregnant”iscalled“tospoil/ruinawoman’sshape”.Someoneevencalled“tobepregnant”“tobecaught”or“tobefallen”.Somevagueexpressionsalsoshowakindofrestlessmood,suchas:thatway,inacertain/particular/delicateconditionetc.Theuseofhumorisanotherfeatureofeuphemismfor“beingpregnant”.Americanpeoplearelikelytosay“tohaveawatermelononthevine”,or“toswallowawatermelonseed”.Britishpeoplearelikelytosay“tohaveabunintheoven”or“tohaveanIrishtoothache”(tomakefunofIrishpeoplewhoarepregnantascommonlyashavingatoothache).
3.2.Courtesy
Anotherreasontouseeuphemismisthatitavoidstheharshanddirectwordinapoliteway,andmakesthesentencesoundmorepleasant.Tograspthepolitefunctionofeuphemismcanhelpyoubuildagoodrelationshipwithothers.Thepolitefunctionsareespeciallyreflectedintheoccupations,ortrades.ItrelatewithPolitenessPrincipleofLeech[17].Itisobviousthatadvertisementisaimedathelpingbusinessmenpropagandatheirgoods,forthesakeofsolicitingcustoms.Asapleasantway,usingeuphemismsinadvertisementshasbecomemoreandmorewidespread.Now,“secondhandstore”hasbeenreplacedby“resalestore”,“super”,“giant”,“special”,suchwords,havebecomemorepopular.Moreover,wecanoftenseethesamephenomenonabouttheexpressionsforclassesofcabins.Todefendpassengers’honor,“FirstClass”ischangedto“DeluxeClass”,“SecondClass”isto“FirstClass”,“ThirdClass”to“BusinessClass”,and“EconomicClass”to“TouristClass”.Thisfunctionundoubtlyplaysanactiveroleofimprovingtheprogressofsociety:
3.2.1.Theeuphemismfortheofficeandtrade
Forexample,“mentalhospitalormentalhealthcenter”isaeuphemismfor“madhouse”;“mortuaryorfuneral”isaeuphemismofdeadhouse.Somesmallcompaniesorsmallenterprisesliketousetheword“industry”,suchashotelindustry,touristindustry,garageindustry,women’sbeautyindustryetc.
3.2.2.Theeuphemismforoccupation
Inordertopromotethesocialstatusoftheoccupation,almosteveryhumbleoccupationhasasweet-soundingname.Therearemainlytwoforms:
3.2.3.Theeuphemismsfortheagedandweight
Theage,especiallyawoman’sageisregardedasasensitiveprivacy.Andmostofthewesternpeopleareafraidofgettingold,sotheycall“oldpeople”“seniorcitizens”.”oldage”and“senility”caneasilycausethefearoftheoldpeople.Someeuphemisticexpressionstaketheplaceofthem,suchas“gettingon(inyears),pastone’sprime,feelingone’sage,secondchildhood,adistinguishedgentleman,agrandedame,thirdage”.Theoldpeoplebecome“anelderstatesman”or“oldagepensioner”orevenuseinitialing“OAP”.Theyarenot“old”but“long-lived”.Oldpeople’shome,ofcourse,isnotanidealplaceforoldmentolivein.Therearemanyeuphemisticexpressions:ahomeforadults,anursinghome,aresthome,aprivatehospital,aconvalescenthospital.Theoldpeoplewholivetherearecalledeuphemistically“aresident”.
Inwesterncountry,itisveryimpoliteifyoutalkaboutsomeone’sfigureandweightwithoutreservation.Ifsomeoneis“fat”,“overweight”isoftenusedtoreplaceit.“weight-watchers”isalsoaeuphemismfor“fatpeople”.Tofemale,“afatgirl”iscalled“afullerfigureorplump”;tomale,“fat”iscalled“stout”;tochild,itiscalled“chubby”.Onthecontrary,ifsomeoneistoothin,euphemismisalsoused.Tomale,itiscalled“lean”,andtofemale,itiscalled“slim,slender,willowyorsvelte”.
3.2.4.Theeuphemismsforpovertyandunemployment
Thetopicofpovertyandunemploymentmightcausesomeembarrassment,sopeopleoftenuseeuphemismwhentheirtalksconcernsuchthings.Forexample,“dismissal”isoftencalled“layoff,easeout,getthewalkingticket/pinkslip”;“bankruptcy”iscalled“outofthegame”;“penniless”iscalled“outofpocket,inreducedcircumstances,badlyoff,needyetc.”;“thepoorpeople”iscalled“thehave-nots,theunderprivileged,thedisadvantaged”;eventheirhousesalsohaveasweet-soundingname-“substandardhousing”.Theeuphemismforunemploymenthasmanyexpressions.Mostofthemarehumorous,suchas“betweenjobs”,“betweenshows”,“tobedevelopinganewproject”,“toreceiveaMexicanraise/anIrishpromotion”(toraiseapromotionwithoutraisingthesalary),“tobeself-employed”.InAmerica“unemployedmen”arecalled“claimants”,while,inBritain,theyarecalled“tobeonpublicassistance”.Ofcourse,someeuphemismsarepessimistic:TheBritishunemployedmencantake50percentofftheticketofafilmandadrama,sotheyalsocanbecalled“thelessfortunate”.
3.2.5.Theeuphemismsforexcretion
Allwordsconcerning“excretion”excepttearsareconsideredtaboowords.Theeuphemismsfor“lavatory”havemanywaysofexpressions,suchaswatercloset,cloakroom,comfortstation,toilet(whichispopularinBritain),restroom(whichisgenerallyusedinAmerica).InAmerica,“conveniencestation”iswrittenEnglish,while“bathroom”isoralEnglish.“John”isslang,while“poet’scorner”isacrackjoke.InBritain,theyuse“Jakes”insteadof“John”.Theyuse“publiccomfortstation”insteadof“publicconveniencestation”.Men’slavatoryiscalled“Gent’s,theJohn,thewashroom”;Women’slavatoryiscalled“Ladies’,thepowderroom,powderone’snose(Br.);powderone’spuff(Am.);Mrs.Jones”.Therearealsomanywaystoexpress“urination”and“defecation”,suchas,togotothebathroom/restroom/powderroom,todoone’sbusiness,toanswernature’scall..
Thereareotherexpressions.Forinstance,Ihavetoretireforamoment./Iwouldliketobeexcused.Interrogativesentencescanalsobeused:WhereistherestroomWherecanIwashmyhandsLadiescansay,“I’dliketoaddsomemakeup.”inordertoavoidtheawkwardness.
3.3.Disguise
Oppositetothepositiveinfluencesofeuphemism,therearesomedifferentsayingsaboutit.SomepeoplecondemneuphemismsasdemoralizingbecauseofitshypocrisywhileotherslikeHilaireBellocconsiderthema‘psychologicalnecessity”[18].Oneofthemostimportantreasonsisthateuphemismisusedtoconcealsomescandalousbehaviorsandcrimes.Therefore,euphemismcanalsobringaboutthenegativeinfluences,whichareembodiedinthefollowingtwoaspectsaccordingtoitsconcealingfunction:
3.3.1.Theeuphemismsfortherequirementsofpoliticsandwar.
3.3.2.Theeuphemismsforcrime
Crimeisalsoaverysensitivetopic.Thejudgecansay,“Iherebysentenceyoutofiveyearsinprison.”Whilethefamiliesandfriendsofthecriminalarelikelytousetheeuphemisticexpression,suchas“tosendtothebighouse,tosenduptheriver,tobelivingatthegovernment’sexpense.”“juveniledelinquents”isaeuphemismfor“youngcriminals”;“prison”iscalled“correctionalcenter”;“burglary”iscalled“surreptitiousentry”;“rape”iscalled“criminalassault”;“theofficer’sactofstealingorembezzling”iscalled“Theymisusepublicfunds.”“Deathpenalty”iscalled“capitalpunishment”.
3.4.Thecountries’namesaseuphemism
4.Conclusion
Euphemismappearswithfalseappearance,andexertsasubtleinfluenceonexposingthetruth.Thatistousetheneutralorpleasantwordstoexpresssomeawkwardoroffensivecontents.AstotheEnglishlearners,weshouldnotonlypayattentiontoitsapplicationonappropriateoccasions,buttoitsinfluences.Itsactivefunctionscancoordinatetheinterpersonalrelationships,releasethecontradictionsandavoidtheconflicts.Thenegativefunctionsaretoconfoundrightandwrong,beautifytheshamefulbehaviorsandconcealtheessence.Languageitselfhasnottheclasscharacter,butdifferentpeople,politicalpartiesandcountriescanconsideritatooltoserveforthem.Thatiswhysomeonenamedeuphemismsas“comfortablewords”or“cosmeticwords”.Indailylife,weshouldpayattentiontotheinfluencesthattheactiveandnegativefunctionsofeuphemismsbringus,andkeepthenegativefunctionsfromcorruptingourthoughts.
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