Onedayinthefallof1981,eightmenintheir70ssteppedoutofavaninfrontofaconvertedmonasteryinNewHampshire.Theyshuffledforward,afewofthemarthriticallystooped,acouplewithcanes.Thentheypassedthroughthedoorandenteredatimewarp.PerryComocroonedonavintageradio.EdSullivanwelcomedguestsonablack-and-whiteTV.Everythinginside—includingthebooksontheshelvesandthemagazineslyingaround—weredesignedtoconjure1959.Thiswastobethemen’shomeforfivedaysastheyparticipatedinaradicalexperiment,cookedupbyayoungpsychologistnamedEllenLanger.
Thesubjectswereingoodhealth,butaginghadleftitsmark.“Thiswasbefore75wasthenew55,”saysLanger,whois67andthelongest-servingprofessorofpsychologyatHarvard.Beforearriving,themenwereassessedonsuchmeasuresasdexterity,gripstrength,flexibility,hearingandvision,memoryandcognition—probablytheclosestthingsthegerontologistsofthetimecouldcometothetestablebiomarkersofage.Langerpredictedthenumberswouldbequitedifferentafterfivedays,whenthesubjectsemergedfromwhatwastobeafairlyintensepsychologicalintervention.
Langerhadalreadyundertakenacoupleofstudiesinvolvingelderlypatients.Inone,shefoundthatnursing-homeresidentswhohadexhibitedearlystagesofmemorylosswereabletodobetteronmemorytestswhentheyweregivenincentivestoremember—showingthatinmanycases,indifferencewasbeingmistakenforbraindeterioration.Inanother,nowconsideredaclassicofsocialpsychology,Langergavehouseplantstotwogroupsofnursing-homeresidents.Shetoldonegroupthattheywereresponsibleforkeepingtheplantaliveandthattheycouldalsomakechoicesabouttheirschedulesduringtheday.Shetoldtheothergroupthatthestaffwouldcarefortheplants,andtheywerenotgivenanychoiceintheirschedules.Eighteenmonthslater,twiceasmanysubjectsintheplant-caring,decision-makinggroupwerestillalivethaninthecontrolgroup.
ToLanger,thiswasevidencethatthebiomedicalmodeloftheday—thatthemindandthebodyareonseparatetracks—waswrongheaded.Thebeliefwasthat“theonlywaytogetsickisthroughtheintroductionofapathogen,andtheonlywaytogetwellistogetridofit,”shesaid,whenwemetatherofficeinCambridgeinDecember.Shecametothinkthatwhatpeopleneededtohealthemselveswasapsychological“prime”—somethingthattriggeredthebodytotakecurativemeasuresallbyitself.GatheringtheoldermentogetherinNewHampshire,forwhatshewouldlaterrefertoasacounterclockwisestudy,wouldbeawaytotestthispremise.
在兰格看来，这些证据显示了当时的生物医学模式——即心灵和身体分道而驰——陷入了认识误区。12月，当我在她位于马萨诸塞州剑桥的办公室里见到她时，她说，当时医学界相信“病原体侵入是导致人体患病的唯一途径，而要恢复健康，也惟有摆脱病原体”。她逐渐产生的一个设想是，人需要某种心理上的“触发刺激”来自行痊愈，也就是触发身体自行动用所有的康复手段。让上文提到的老年男性汇聚新罕布什尔州，进行她后来所称的“逆时针”研究，就是测试这个假设的一种方式。
Themenintheexperimentalgroupweretoldnotmerelytoreminisceaboutthisearlierera,buttoinhabitit—to“makeapsychologicalattempttobethepersontheywere22yearsago,”shetoldme.“Wehavegoodreasontobelievethatifyouaresuccessfulatthis,”Langertoldthemen,“youwillfeelasyoudidin1959.”Fromthetimetheywalkedthroughthedoors,theyweretreatedasiftheywereyounger.Themenweretoldthattheywouldhavetotaketheirbelongingsupstairsthemselves,eveniftheyhadtodoitoneshirtatatime.
她要求实验组的老人不要止步于对旧时光的缅怀，而是要让自己穿越回去，栖息于其中——“从心理层面尝试做回22年前的自己，”兰格向我描述道。她还对他们说：“我们有很好的理由相信，如果你们能成功地做到这一点，你们会觉得自己还是1959年的那个人。”从他们进门的那一刻起，他们就被当做年轻人对待。他们被告知，他们必须自己把行李搬上楼去，哪怕他们一次只拿得动一件衬衫。
每天，他们讨论着体育(约翰尼·尤尼塔斯[JohnnyUnitas，曾获国家橄榄球联盟最有价值球员]或威尔特·张伯伦[WiltChamberlain，前美国NBA联盟职业篮球运动员])和“时事”(美国发射第一枚卫星)，或是评析刚刚看过的电影(詹姆斯·斯图尔特[JimmyStewart]主演的《桃色血案》[“AnatomyofaMurder”])——他们使用现在时态谈论这些50年代末的物品和事件，这也是兰格主要的“触发刺激”策略之一。不会有任何东西，包括镜子和现代服装，来扰乱这种“时光倒流22年”的幻觉，即使有照片，那也是他们自己年轻时的肖像。
Attheendoftheirstay,themenweretestedagain.Onseveralmeasures,theyoutperformedacontrolgroupthatcameearliertothemonasterybutdidn’timaginethemselvesbackintotheskinoftheiryoungerselves,thoughtheywereencouragedtoreminisce.Theyweresuppler,showedgreatermanualdexterityandsattaller—justasLangerhadguessed.Perhapsmostimprobable,theirsightimproved.Independentjudgessaidtheylookedyounger.Theexperimentalsubjects,Langertoldme,had“puttheirmindinanearliertime,”andtheirbodieswentalongfortheride.
在这段小住结束时，这些老人再度接受了检查。实验组在多项指标上远远优于对照组。后者之前就来到了这所修道院，但研究人员只鼓励他们回忆过去，而没有要求他们想象自己重返年轻时代。实验组老人的身体柔韧性更强，手部更加灵巧，坐姿时腰背也挺得更直——正如兰格所猜测的那样。也许最不可思议的是，他们的视力也有所改善。独立的评委表示他们看上去更年轻了。兰格告诉我，实验组受试者“让自己的心境回到了年轻时代”，他们的身体也随之调整。
Theresultswerealmosttoogood.Theybeggaredbelief.“ItsoundedlikeLourdes,”Langersaid.ThoughsheandherstudentswouldwriteuptheexperimentforachapterinabookforOxfordUniversityPresscalled“HigherStagesofHumanDevelopment,”theyleftoutalotofthetantalizingcolor—likethespontaneoustouch-footballgamethateruptedbetweenheretoforecreakyseniorsastheywaitedforthebusbacktoCambridge.AndLangerneversentitouttothejournals.Shesuspecteditwouldberejected.
Afterall,itwasasmall-samplestudy,conductedoveramerefivedays,withplentyofpotentiallyconfoundingvariablesinthedesign.(Perhapsthestimulatingnoveltyofthewholesetuporwantingtotryextrahardtopleasethetestersexplainedsomeofthegreatimprovement.)Butmorefundamental,theunconventionalityofthestudymadeLangerself-consciousaboutshowingitaround.“ItwasjusttoodifferentfromanythingthatwasbeingdoneinthefieldasIunderstoodit,”shesaid.“Youhavetoappreciate,peopleweren’ttalkingaboutmind-bodymedicine,”shesaid.
毕竟，这只是为期五天的一个小样本研究，设计中存在大量潜在混淆的变量。(或许是整个实验令人振奋的新颖性，或者是受试者为了取悦测试者而格外努力，这些都可能在一定程度上解释某些指标的显著改观。)但更为根本的是，这项研究的标新立异使兰格不太好意思到处展示。“在我看来，这跟该领域当时在进行的研究工作相去太远，”她说。“要知道，那时没有人谈论身心医学(mind-bodymedicine)。”
Langerdidnottrytoreplicatethestudy—mostlybecauseitwassocomplicatedandexpensive;everytimeshethoughtabouttryingitagain,shetalkedherselfoutofit.Thenin2010,theBBCbroadcastarecreation,whichLangerconsultedon,called“TheYoungOnes,”withsixagingformercelebritiesasguineapigs.
兰格没有尝试重复这项实验，主要是因为它太复杂，成本也太高，每次她产生再试一次的念头，她都劝阻了自己。直到2010年，英国广播公司(BBC)聘请兰格担任顾问，重复了这项实验，并将其做成一档节目，名为“年轻一代”(TheYoungOnes)，把六位年迈的前名星当作实验对象。
Thestarsweresquiredviaperiodcarstoacountryhousemeticulouslyretrofittedto1975,rightdowntothekitschywallart.TheyemergedafteraweekasapparentlyrejuvenatedasLanger’sseptuagenariansinNewHampshire,showingmarkedimprovementonthetestmeasures.One,whohadrolledupinawheelchair,walkedoutwithacane.Another,whocouldn’tevenputhissocksonunassistedatthestart,hostedthefinalevening’sdinnerparty,glidingaroundwithpurposeandvim.Theotherswalkedtallerandindeedseemedtolookyounger.Theyhadbeenpulledoutofmothballsandmadetofeelimportantagain,andperhaps,Langerlatermused,thatrekindlingoftheiregoswascentraltothereclamationoftheirbodies.
这些明星们被老式轿车送到了一幢精心改建成1975年风格(甚至包括那个时期俗气的墙面艺术)的乡间别墅。一周后，他们重新露面，一个个都显得青春焕发，就像当年兰格实验中那些年逾七旬的老人一样。他们的检测指标也出现明显改善。有个人进去时还坐着轮椅，出来时却可以自己拄着拐杖行走了。还有一位，一开始就连穿袜子也要别人帮忙，到实验结束前夕却操办了告别晚宴，意志坚定精神抖擞地忙进忙出。其他人步行时腰杆也挺得更直，确实看起来年轻多了。他们不再被束之高阁，而是再次觉得自己重要，有价值。后来兰格想到，唤醒自我意识也许在他们身体重现活力的神奇变化中起到了核心作用。
Theprogram,whichwasshowninfourpartsandnominatedforaBaftaAward(aBritishEmmy),broughtnewattentiontoLanger’swork.JeffreyRediger,apsychiatristandthemedicalandclinicaldirectorofHarvard’sMcLeanHospital,wasinvitedbyafriendofLanger’stowatchitwithsomecolleagueslastyear.RedigerwasawareofLanger’soriginalNewHampshirestudy,butthemade-for-TVversionbroughtitstantalizingimplicationstolife.
“She’soneofthepeopleatHarvardwhoreallygetsit,”Redigertoldme.“Thathealthandillnessaremuchmorerootedinourmindsandinourheartsandhowweexperienceourselvesintheworldthanourmodelsevenbegintounderstand.”
“兰格是哈佛大学里真正懂行的几个人之一，”雷迪格告诉我。“也就是说，健康和疾病在更大程度上植根于我们的思想和心情，以及我们在世上如何体验自己，而这是现有医学模式根本不理解的。”
Langer’shouseinCambridgewasaschillyasameatlockerwhenwearrivedtogether,havingwalkedfromcampus,lastwinter.Thebackdoorhadbeenleftopenalldaysothatheraging,coddledWestie,Gus,couldrelievehimselfintheyard.(Langer’spartner,NancyHemenway,whonormallywouldbeathome,wasaway.)Gushasabraintumor.“Hewassupposedtobedeadoverayearago,”Langersaid.“ButIthinkhemightoutliveusall.”
去年冬天，我和兰格从校园里一起步行到她家去，房子里冷得好像冷藏室一样。后门整天敞开着，好让她宠爱的那条老西高地白梗犬格斯(Gus)可以自由地跑到院子里去玩。(兰格的伴侣，南希·海明威[NancyHemenway]通常在家，但那天正好出去了。)格斯患有脑肿瘤。“照说它在一年前就会死，”兰格说。“但我觉得它说不定比我们所有人都活得久。”
Inthekitchen,Langerbeganlayingoutwidenoodlesforalasagnashewasmakingforanend-of-termparty.Itwasthelasttimeshewouldmeetwithherstudentsforawhile;theywereabouttoscatterforthewinterbreak,andshewasleavingforasabbaticalinPuertoVallarta,Mexico,wheresheandNancyhaveanotherhome.(LangerplannedtoSkypeintoweeklylabmeetings.)
“Familyrecipe”Iaskedofthedinner.
“这是家传的菜谱吗”我问起了晚餐。
“Idon’tfollowrecipes—youshouldknowthat,”shesaid.Shepiledonanimmoderateamountofcheese.“Besides,ifIblowit,what’sgoingtobethecost”Langersaid.“Isitanyone’slastmeal”Sheadded,“Mystudentsaren’tgoingtolovemeifmylasagna’snogood”
“我从不拘泥于菜谱的——这你知道，”她一边说，一边往面上大量地堆奶酪。“再说，就算我搞砸了又怎么样这又不是谁最后的晚餐;就算我做的千层面不好吃，难道我的学生们就会因此不爱戴我”
LangerwasbornintheBronxandwenttoN.Y.U.,becomingachemistrymajorwithhereyeonmedschool.ThatallchangedaftershetookPsych101.HerprofessorwasPhilipZimbardo,whowouldlatergotoStanfordandinvestigatetheeffectsofauthorityandobedienceinhiswell-knownprisonexperiment.Humanbehavior,asZimbardopresentedit,wasmoreinterestingthanwhatshe’dbeenstudying,andLangersoonswitchedtracks.
兰格出生于布朗克斯，在纽约大学攻读化学专业，想着以后进医学院。然而，在她听了《心理学101》(Psych101)课之后，一切都改变了。她师从的菲利普·津巴多(PhilipZimbardo)教授后来去斯坦福大学任教，并在著名的监狱实验中研究了权威和服从的影响。兰格从津巴多教授的讲课中发现，人类行为比她之前学的东西更有意思，于是她很快换了专业。
ShewentontograduateworkatYale,whereapokergameledtoherdoctoraldissertationonthemagicalthinkingofotherwiselogicalpeople.Evensmartpeoplefallpreytoan“illusionofcontrol”overchanceevents,Langerconcluded.Wearen’treallyveryrationalcreatures.Ourcognitivebiasesroutinelysteeruswrong.Langer’snotionthatpeoplearetrainednottothinkandarethusextremelyvulnerabletoright-soundingbutactuallywrongnotionsprefiguredmanyofthetenetsof“behavioraleconomics”andtheworkofpeoplelikeDanielKahneman,whowonaNobelPrizeineconomicsciences.Butunlikemanyresearcherswhosystematicallyworkoutoneconceptuntiltheyownit,Langer’speripateticmindquicklymovedontootherareasofinquiry.“Iwasnever—andmaybethisisacharacterflaw—thetypeofpersonwhoisgoingtotakeoneideaandbeatittodeath,”shesaid.“PartofthatisthatIhavesomanyideas.IfwhateveritisI’mexcitedaboutnowdoesn’thappen,itdoesn’tmatter,becausethere’salwaysthenextpossibility.”
她的研究生阶段在耶鲁大学(Yale)度过，在那里，一场扑克游戏给了她启迪，使她写出一篇有关通常讲究逻辑的人们迸发突发奇想的博士论文。兰格的结论是：即使聪明人也容易陷入对于偶然事件的“控制错觉”。我们真的算不上一种高度理性的生物。认知偏见经常将我们导向错误的方向。兰格认为，人们养成了不假思索的习惯，这使他们很容易被似是而非的理念误导。这一观念的形成早于许多流派的“行为经济学”，也早于诺贝尔经济学奖得主丹尼尔·卡尼曼(DanielKahneman)等人的研究。但与许多锲而不舍地钻研某个概念、直到它为自己所有的研究者不同，兰格的思维经常信马由缰地转向其他研究领域。“我从来不是能追着一个问题打破砂锅问到底的人，或许这是一种性格缺陷，”她说。“部分原因是我总是有太多的想法。如果现在让我激动不已的东西没能搞出名堂，那没关系，因为始终存在下一个可能性。”
Bythe1970s,Langerhadbecomeconvincedthatnotonlyaremostpeopleledastraybytheirbiases,buttheyarealsospectacularlyinattentivetowhat’sgoingonaroundthem.“They’rejustnotthere,”assheputsit.Whenyou’renotthere,Langerreasoned,you’reverylikelytoendupwhereyou’reled.Shesetupanumberofstudiestoshowhowpeople’sthinkingandbehaviorcaneasilybemanipulatedwithsubtleprimes.
到了20世纪70年代，兰格逐渐确信，多数人不仅被自己的偏见带上歧途，还对身边发生的事情极其漫不经心。就像她所说的，“他们就是心不在焉。”兰格的推理是，当你心不在焉的时候，你很容易被牵着走。她设立了多项研究，旨在揭示人们思路和行为很容易被细微的“触发刺激”所操纵。
Inone,sheandhercolleaguesfoundthatofficeworkerswerefarmorelikelytocomplywitharidiculousinterdepartmentalmemoifitlookedlikeotherofficialmemos.Inanother,createdwithherYalementor,RobertAbelson,theyaskedbehavioralandtraditionaltherapiststowatchavideoofapersonbeinginterviewed,whowaslabeledeither“patient”or“jobapplicant,”andthenevaluatetheperson.Thebehavioraltherapistsregardedtheintervieweeaswelladjustedregardlessofwhethertheyweretoldthepersonwasapatientoranapplicant.Butthetraditionaltherapistsfoundtheintervieweelabeled“patient”significantlymoredisturbed.Eventrainedobservers“weremindlesslyledbythelabel,”Langersays.
在一项研究中，她和同事们发现，只要看起来跟其他官方的内部通知差不多，哪怕是一份内容荒谬的跨部门通知，也会让上班族们照办。在另一项与她在耶鲁大学的导师罗伯特·艾贝尔森(RobertAbelson)合作创建的研究中，他们要求行为治疗师和传统治疗师观看某个身份被标注为“患者”或“求职者”的人接受采访的视频，然后对此人做出评估。无论是对所谓的“患者”还是“求职者”，行为治疗师认为这位受访者相当自如得体。但是在传统治疗师眼里，“患者”身份的受访者明显更加不安。兰格指出，这说明，即使训练有素的观察者“也很容易被标签搞得没头没脑”。
Ifpeoplecouldlearntobemindfulandalwaysperceivethechoicesavailabletothem,Langersays,theywouldfulfilltheirpotentialandimprovetheirhealth.Langer’stechniqueofachievingastateofmindfulnessisdifferentfromtheoneoftenutilizedinEastern“mindfulnessmeditation”—nonjudgmentalawarenessofthethoughtsandfeelingsdriftingthroughyourmind—thatiseverywheretoday.Heremphasisisonnoticingmoment-to-momentchangesaroundyou,fromthedifferencesinthefaceofyourspouseacrossthebreakfasttabletothevariabilityofyourasthmasymptoms.Whenweare“activelymakingnewdistinctions,ratherthanrelyingonhabitual”categorizations,we’realive;andwhenwe’realive,wecanimprove.Indeed,“well-beingandenhancedperformance”wereLanger’sgoalsfromthebeginningofhercareer.
兰格表示，如果人们能够学会多留点心，始终察觉到身边可以把握的选择，那么，他们将能充分发挥自己的潜能，并改善自己的健康。兰格所说的达到专注状态的技巧与在当今大行其道的东方式“正念禅修”不同，后者是对你的脑海中飘过的思想和感受达到不加评判的认知。而兰格强调的是留心你身边每时每刻的细微变化，从早餐桌对面配偶脸色的差异，到你的哮喘症状的改变。当我们在“积极主动发现新的差别，而不是依赖于习惯性的”分类时，我们会真正觉得自己活着;而当我们觉得自己活着，我们就能改善。的确，在职业生涯伊始，兰格就以“福祉和增强的表现”为目标。
MartinSeligmaninthepasttwodecadeshascometoberecognizedasthefatherofpositivepsychology.TalBen-Shahar,whotaughtapopularundergraduatecourseatHarvardonthesubjectuntil2008,callsLanger“themotherofpositivepsychology,”byvirtueofherearlyworkthatanticipatedthefield.
过去20年里，马丁·赛里格曼(MartinSeligman)被公认为积极心理学之父。而凭借其在该领域的早期研究工作，兰格被2008年之前在哈佛大学讲授一门深受欢迎的本科课程的塔尔·班夏哈(TalBen-Shahar)誉为“积极心理学之母”。
Langercametobelievethatonewaytoenhancewell-beingwastouseallsortsofplacebos.Placebosaren’tjustsugarpillsdisguisedasmedicine,thoughthat’stheliteraldefinition;theyareanyintervention,benignbutbelievedbytherecipienttobepotent,thatproducesmeasurablephysiologicalchanges.Placeboeffectsareastrikingphenomenonandstillnotallthatwellunderstood.Entirefieldslikepsychoneuroimmunologyandpsychoendocrinologyhaveemergedtoinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenpsychologicalandphysiologicalprocesses.Neuroscientistsarechartingwhat’sgoingoninthebrainwhenexpectationsalonereducepainorrelieveParkinson’ssymptoms.Moretraditionallymindedhealthresearchersacknowledgetheroleofplaceboeffectsandaccountforthemintheirexperiments.ButLangergoeswellbeyondthat.Shethinksthey’rehuge—sohugethatinmanycasestheymayactuallybethemainfactorproducingtheresults.
兰格认为，增强福祉的途径之一是利用各种各样的安慰剂。安慰剂并不只是伪装成药物的糖丸(尽管那确实是字面上的定义);没有危害、接受者相信有效，能够产生可测量的生理变化的任何干预措施都可称为安慰剂。安慰剂效应是一种引人注目的现象，至今仍未获得很好的理解。目前已经涌现出了心理神经免疫学和精神内分泌学等完整的研究领域，专门探讨心理与生理过程之间的关系。神经科学家试图跟踪记录当仅凭期望就减轻疼痛或缓解帕金森氏病症状时，大脑中究竟发生了哪些变化。意识较为传统的医学研究人员承认安慰剂效应的作用，并在自己的实验中计入这些效应。但兰格走得更远。她认为，安慰剂效应是巨大的——在许多情况下，它们实际上可能是产生结果的主要因素。
Afewyearsearlier,Langerandoneofherstudents,AliaCrum,conductedastudy,publishedinthejournalPsychologicalScience,involving84hotelchambermaids.Themaidshadmostlyreportedthattheydidn’tgetmuchexerciseinatypicalweek.Theresearchersprimedtheexperimentalgrouptothinkdifferentlyabouttheirworkbyinformingthemthatcleaningroomswasfairlyseriousexercise—asmuchifnotmorethanthesurgeongeneralrecommends.Oncetheirexpectationswereshifted,thosemaidslostweight,relativetoacontrolgroup(andalsoimprovedonothermeasureslikebodymassindexandhip-to-waistratio).Allotherfactorswereheldconstant.Theonlydifferencewasthechangeinmind-set.
几年前，兰格和她的学生阿莉娅·克拉姆(AliaCrum)进行了一项研究，并发表在《心理科学》(PsychologicalScience)杂志上。该研究涉及84名酒店客房女服务员。她们大多报告称，自己在典型的一周工作期间没有什么锻炼机会。研究人员引导实验组的女服务员换一种心态看待自己的工作，告诉她们：打扫房间其实是一种强度不小的锻炼，运动量不比卫生局局长所建议的要少。在她们的预期改变后，这些女服务员的体重相对于对照组有所减轻(其他指标，如身体质量指数[BMI]和腰臀比也有所改善)。其他所有因素都保持恒定。唯一变化的只有受试者的心态。
Criticshuntedforotherexplanations—statisticalerrorsorsubtlebehaviorchangesintheweight-lossgroupthatLangerhadn’taccountedfor.Otherwisetheoutcomeseemedtodefyphysics.“TowhichIwouldsay,‘There’snodisciplinethatiscomplete,’”Langerresponds.“Ifcurrent-dayphysicscan’texplainthesethings,maybetherearechangesthatneedtobemadeinphysics.”
批评者寻找其他解释，如统计错误，或者兰格未能计入的体重下降组的细微行为变化。否则，那样的结果似乎有悖于物理学。“对此我想说，‘没有一个学科是绝对完美的’，”兰格回应道。“如果当代的物理学无法解释这些现象，也许是物理学本身需要一些改变了。”
Someofthenewexperimentsrelyonvariablesthatchangeself-perception.Inastudyusingavatars,scheduledtotakeplaceatthepopulargamingfacilitySecondLife,subjectswillwatchadigitalversionofthemselvesplayingtennisandgraduallygettingthinnerfromtheexertion.Langerisexploringwhetherwatchinganavatarwillhaveaphysiologicaleffectontherealperson.“Youseeyourself,you’replayingtennis,”Langersaid.“Thequestionis:WillpeopleloseweightWe’llsee.”
有些新实验依赖于改变自我感知的变量。在一项拟在流行的虚拟游戏世界“第二人生”(SecondLife)中进行的研究中，受试者将观看自己的数字化身打网球，并因为体力消耗而逐渐变得苗条起来。兰格希望研究观察化身会否对真人造成生理影响。“你看到自己在打网球，”兰格说。“问题是：人们会因此减肥么我们拭目以待。”
SomeofLanger’scolleaguesintheacademyseeherasavaluableforceinpsychology,praisinghereccentricintelligenceandingeniousstudydesigns.StevenPinker,thewriterandHarvardprofessor,toldmethatshefilledanimportantnichewithintheschool’sdepartment,whichhasoftenharbored“maverickswithnontraditionalprojects,”including“B.F.Skinner’sutopiannovelsandmanifestoesandHerbKelman’sencountergroupsbetweenArabandIsraeliactivists—nottomentionTimothyLearyandRichardAlpert,”whowouldbecomeRamDass.
兰格在学术圈内的一些同事肯定了她在心理学领域的价值和影响力，赞赏她的独到智慧和巧妙研究设计。哈佛大学教授和作家史蒂文·平克(StevenPinker)告诉我，她在学院内部占有重要的一席之地，该学院经常孕育出“搞出非传统项目的特立独行者”，包括“伯尔赫斯·弗雷德里克·斯金纳(B.F.Skinner)的乌托邦小说和宣言、赫布·克尔曼(HerbKelman)组织的让阿拉伯与以色列活动人士汇聚一堂的会心小组——更不用说蒂莫西·利里(TimothyLeary)和理查德·阿尔珀特(RichardAlpert，已更名为拉姆·达斯[RamDass])了。”
ButLanger’ssensibilitycanfeelatoddswiththerigorsofcontemporaryacademia.Sometimesshewillgiveequalweighttocasuallyhatchedideasandpeer-reviewedstudies.ShespokelooselytomeofherNewHampshirecounterclockwisestudyashavingbeen“replicated”threetimes—inBritain,theNetherlandsandSouthKorea.Butnoneofthesewerelabexperiments.Theywereeventsmadefortelevision.ThestudythatarguablymadeLanger’sname—theplantstudywithnursing-homepatients—wouldn’thave“muchcredibilitytoday,norwoulditmeetthetightenedstandardsofrigor,”saysJamesCoyne,professoremeritusofpsychologyattheUniversityofPennsylvaniamedicalschoolandawidelypublishedbirddogofpseudoscience.(Though,asCoynealsoacknowledges,“thatistrueofmuchoftheworkofthe’70s,includingmyownconcerningdepressedpersonsdepressingothers.”)Langer’slong-termcontributions,Coynesays,“willbeseenintermsofthethinkingandexperimentingtheyencouraged.”
Fouryearsago,LangerandhercolleaguespublishedinPsychologicalScienceastudythatcameclosestinspirittotheoriginalcounterclockwisestudyinNewHampshire.Here,too,theplacebowasahealthprime,asituationalnudge.Theyhadtwogroupsofsubjectsgointoaflightsimulator.OnegroupwastoldtothinkofthemselvesasAirForcepilotsandgivenflightsuitstowearwhileguidingasimulatedflight.Theothergroupwastoldthatthesimulatorwasbrokenandthattheyshouldjustpretendtoflyaplane.Afterward,theygaveeachgroupaneyesighttest.Thegroupthatpilotedtheflightperformed40percentbetterthantheothergroup.Clearly“mind-setmanipulationcancounteractpresumedphysiologicallimits,”Langersaid.Ifacertainkindofpromptcouldchangevision,Langerthought,therewasnoreason,thatyoucouldn’ttryalmostanything.Theendgame,shehassaidmanytimessince,isto“returnthecontrolofourhealthbacktoourselves.”
四年前，兰格及其同事在《心理科学》上发表了一项研究，这是与新罕布什尔州“逆时针”研究在精神上最接近的一项研究。这项研究的安慰剂仍是某种健康触发刺激，某种情景暗示。研究者把两组受试者分别送入飞行模拟器，要求其中一组受试者设想自己是空军飞行员，并让他们在操纵模拟飞行时穿着飞行服。而另一组受试者则被告知，模拟器坏了，他们只需要假装在操纵飞机。随后，两组人接受了视力测试。结果“飞行员组”的检测结果比另一组高出40%。兰格总结道，显然“操纵心态可以抵消假定的生理局限”。如果某种提示可以改变视力的话，兰格认为，那就没理由不敢尝试几乎任何东西。在那之后，她多次表示，终极目的是将“健康的控制权交还给我们自己”。
Lastspring,Langerandapostdoctoralresearcher,DeborahPhillips,werechattingwhenthesubjectofthecounterclockwisestudycameup.Overthemorethan30interveningyears,Langerhadexploredmanydimensionsofhealthpsychologyandtestedthepowerofthemindtoeasevariousafflictions.Perhapsitwasfinallytimetorunthecounterclockwisestudyagain.Butiftheydid,shewantedtoraisethestakes:CouldtheyshrinkthetumorsofcancerpatientsLangeroftensaysshehasnocluewhereherideascomefrom—butinthiscaseitwascrystalclear:Metastaticbreastcancerkilledhermotherat56,whenLangerwas29.
去年春天，兰格和博士后研究员德博拉·菲利普斯(DeborahPhillips)在聊天时谈起了“逆时针”研究。自那以来的30多年里，兰格探索了健康心理学的多个层面，做了很多利用思维的威力来缓解各种病痛的试验。也许现在终于到了再次进行“逆时针”的时候了。但是，如果真的要做，这次她想要加大赌注：他们能够缩小癌症患者的肿瘤么兰格常说，她不知道自己那些稀奇古怪的想法从何而来，但这一次，她的灵感源泉显而易见：在她29岁时，她的母亲因转移性乳腺癌去世，享年仅56岁。
Phillipssuggestedthatperhapstheyshouldstartwithearly-stagecancers,onesperceivedasmorecurable,butLangerwasfirm:Ithadtobeabig,commonkillerthattraditionalWesternmedicinehadnoanswerfor.ShesettledonStage4metastaticbreastcancer.Treatmentofsuchcasesisusuallyframedintermsofso-calledcomfortcare.“Themedicalworldhasgivenuponthesepeople,”Langersays.
菲利普斯提出，或许她们应当从被认为治愈希望较大的早期癌症着手，但兰格的态度很坚决：必须是一种死亡率较高、常见、传统的西方医学束手无策的癌症。最后，她选择了4期转移性乳腺癌。此类病例的治疗通常被框定于所谓“舒适护理”的范畴。兰格说：“医学界已经放弃了这些患者。”
Thestudy,whichisplannedforthespring,isdesignedtoincludethreegroupsof24womenwithStage4breastcancerwhoareinstableconditionandundergoinghormonaltherapy.TwogroupswillgatheratresortsinSanMigueldeAllende,Mexico,underthesupervisionofLangerandherstaff.Theexperimentalgroupwillliveforaweekinsurroundingsthatevoke2003,adatewhenallthewomenwerehealthyandhopeful,livingwithoutamortalthreathangingoverthem.Theywillbetoldtotrytoinhabittheirformerselves.Fewcluesofthepresentdaywillbevisibleinsidetheresortsor,forthatmatter,outsidethem.Inthelivingareas,turn-of-the-millenniummagazineswillbelyingaround,aswillDVDsoffilmslike“Titanic”and“TheBigLebowski.”SanMigueldeAllende,whichhashistoricallybeenaplaceknownforitsnearbyhealingmineralsprings,isaUnescoWorldHeritageSite,andmanyofitsbuildingslookastheydidafewhundredyearsago.“Thewholetownisatimecapsule,”Langersays.(TheothergroupatSanMiguelwillhavethesupportoffellowcancerpatientsbutwillnotliveinthepast;athirdgroupwillnotexperienceanyresearchintervention.)
Aswiththeoriginalcounterclockwiseexperiment,subjectswillbetestedbeforeandafteronrelevantmeasures—inthiscasethesizeoftheirtumorsandthelevelsofcirculatingproteinsintheirbloodknowntobemadebycancercells—inadditiontovariableslikemoodandenergyandpainlevels.TheexperimentalgroupwillbringwiththemthesamekindsofprimesthattheNewHampshiremendid,likephotographsoftheiryoungerselves.“Wewon’tmakethemhaultheirbagsupthestairs,”Langersays.Butotherwisetheywillbenudgedtodoalltheycanforthemselves.
Thestaffwillencouragethewomentothinkanewabouttheircircumstancesinanattempttopurgeanynegativemessagestheyhaveabsorbedduringtheirpassagethroughinthemedicalsystem.Thisiscrucial,Langersays,becausejustasthemindcanmakethingsbetter,itcanalsomakethingsworse.Thenoceboeffectistheflipsideofthemorepositiveplaceboeffect,andshesaysthatoneofthemostperniciousnoceboeffectscanoccurwhenapatientisinformedbyherdoctorthatsheisill.Thediagnosisitself,Langersays,primesthesymptomsthepatientexpectstofeel.“Youchangeawordhereorthere,andyougetvastlydifferentresults,”Langersays.Shetoldmeaboutayet-to-be-publishedstudyshedidin2010thatfoundthatbreast-cancersurvivorswhodescribedthemselvesas“inremission”werelessfunctionalandshowedpoorergeneralhealthandmorepainthansubjectswhoconsideredthemselves“cured.”
研究人员将鼓励这些妇女换一种方式思考自己的处境，力求摒弃她们之前在医疗系统接受治疗期间吸收的负面信息。兰格表示，这一点至关重要，因为正如心态可以让事情向更好的方向发展，它也可能使事情变得更糟。反安慰剂效应是更为积极的安慰剂效应的另一面。兰格称，最糟糕的反安慰剂效应之一可能发生在患者从医生那里得知自己患病的消息时。兰格说，诊断本身就是患者预期自己将会感受到的种种症状的触发刺激。“如果你在这里或那里换一个词，结果可能截然不同，”她表示。她向我介绍了一项她在2010年进行、但尚未发表的研究。该研究发现，与自认为已经“治愈”的乳腺癌幸存者相比，那些认为自己“处于缓解期”的患者身体功能和整体健康状况都较差，还往往感到更加疼痛。
Sotherewillbenotalkofcancer“victims,”noranyone“fighting”a“chronic”disease.“Whenyou’resaying‘fighting,’you’realreadyacknowledgingtheadversaryisverypowerful,”Langersays."‘Chronic’isunderstoodas‘uncontrollable’—andthat’snotsomethinganyonecanknow.”
因此，实验中将不会提到癌症“受害者”，或者与“慢性”疾病“战斗”。“当你使用‘战斗’这个词时，你已经承认了对手非常强大，”兰格表示。“而‘慢性’往往被理解为‘无法控制’——这不是可以让受试者知道的事情。”
Ofcourse,thesubjectshopetogetbetter,andeverythingaboutthesetupisnudgingtheminthatdirection.Sothestudybecomesakindofopenplaceboexperiment.Langerhaslongbelievedit’spossibletogetpeopletoginuppositiveeffectsintheirownbody—ineffect,todecidetogetwell.Lastfall,shetestedthatproposition,butinreverse:Sherecruitedanumberofhealthytestsubjectsandgavethemthemissiontomakethemselvesunwell.Thesubjectswatchedvideosofpeoplecoughingandsneezing.Thereweretissuesaroundandthoseintheexperimentalgroupwereencouragedtoactasiftheyhadacold.Nodeceptionwasinvolved:Thesubjectsweren’tmisled,forexample,intothinkingtheywerebeingputintoagermchamberoranythinglikethat.Thiswasexplicitlyatesttoseeiftheycouldvoluntarilychangetheirimmunesystemsinmeasurableways.
每个受试者当然都希望自己好转，整个实验的设计都是为了鼓励她们进入好转的轨道。因此，可以说这项研究是某种公开的安慰剂实验。长期以来，兰格一直相信，有可能让人们激发自己体内的积极效应，换句话说就是“决定”让自己好起来。去年秋天，她从反面对这个命题进行了测试：她招募了一批健康的受试者，并交给他们一个任务：让自己感觉不舒服。受试者们观看了人们咳嗽和打喷嚏的视频，周围放了很多纸巾，研究人员鼓励实验组像感冒时那样行为。这项实验没有任何欺骗成分：比如受试者没有受到误导，以为自己身处病菌室之类。这是一场明确的试验，目的是看看他们能否以可衡量的方式从主观上改变自己的免疫系统。
Inthestudy,whichisongoing,40percentoftheexperimentalgroupreportedcoldsymptomsfollowingtheexperiment,while10percentofthoseincontrolgroupdid.Buoyed,Langerorderedfurtheranalysis,lookingformoreconcreteproofthattheyactuallycaughtcoldsbytestingtheirsalivafortheIgAantibody,asignofelevatedimmune-systemresponse.InFebruary,theresultscamein.AlloftheexperimentalsubjectswhohadreportedcoldsymptomsshowedhighlevelsoftheIgAantibody.
在这项仍在进行的研究中，40%的实验组受试者报告在实验后出现感冒症状，而对照组中仅有10%的人报告感冒症状。这一结果令兰格大受鼓舞。她要求进行进一步的分析，通过检测受试者唾液中的IgA抗体水平(免疫系统反应升高的表征)，寻找他们确实患了感冒的更确凿证据。今年2月，结果出来了。报告出现感冒症状的所有受试者的IgA抗体水平都较高。
Placeboeffectshavealreadybeenproventoworkontheimmunesystem.Butthisstudycouldshowforthefirsttimethattheyworkinadifferentway—thatis,throughanactofwill.“Asfarasweknowtoday,theplaceboresponsesintheimmunesystemareattributabletounconsciousclassicalconditioning,”saystheItalianneuroscientistFabrizioBenedetti,aleadingexpertinplaceboeffects.InBenedetti’sexperiments,asuggestionplantedinthemindsoftestsubjectsproducedphysiologicalchangesdirectly,thewayadinnerbellmightgoosethesalivaryglandsofadog.(Inonestudy,healthyvolunteersgivenaplacebo—asuggestionthatanypaintheyexperiencedwasactuallybeneficialtotheirbodies—werefoundtoproducehigherlevelsofnaturalpainkillers.)“There’snoevidencethatexpectationsplayaroleaswell,”Benedettisays.Langerplanstofurtheranalyzethesubjects’salivatoseewhethertheyactuallyhavetherhinovirusandnotjustelevatedIgA.
此前已经证实安慰剂效应可作用于免疫系统。但这项研究可能首次展示这种效应以一种不同的方式(即一种意志行为)发挥作用。安慰剂效应的权威专家、意大利神经学家法布里齐奥·贝内代蒂(FabrizioBenedetti)表示：“据我们目前所知，免疫系统中的安慰剂反应可归因于无意识的经典条件反射。”在贝内代蒂的实验中，植入受试者思维中的心理暗示直接引起了生理反应，就像晚餐铃引发狗的唾液腺分泌一样。(在一项研究中，健康的志愿者得到这样一种安慰剂：一种心理暗示，让他们以为自己所经受的任何疼痛其实都有益于身体健康。结果，他们体内产生的天然镇痛剂水平有所提高。)贝内代蒂指出：“尚无证据表明预期也能发挥作用。”现在，兰格计划进一步分析受试者的唾液，看其中是否确实存在鼻病毒，而不只是偏高的IgA抗体水平。
Theimplicationsoftheopenplacebo—thatis,weknowthesugarpillisjustasugarpill,butitstillworksasmedicine—aretantalizing.Ifplaceboeffectscanbeharnessedwithoutdeception,itwouldremovemanyoftheethicalissuesthatsurroundplacebowork.InastudypublishedinthejournalPlosOnein2010,TedKaptchuk,aprofessorofmedicineatHarvardMedicalSchool,andhiscolleaguesadministeredaplacebolabeled“placebo”toatestgroupofpatientssufferingfromirritablebowelsyndrome.Theirsymptomsdeclinedsignificantlyascomparedwithano-treatmentcontrolgroup.“Atsomeleveleverybodyrealizestheythemselvesaretheplacebo,”Langersays.
公开安慰剂(即我们知道自己服用的只是糖丸，但它还是会产生药物的效果)的潜在影响是十分诱人的。如果无需欺骗就能收到安慰剂的效果，困扰安慰剂研究的很多伦理问题将不复存在。在2010年发表于《公共科学图书馆期刊》(PLOSOne)的一项研究中，哈佛医学院教授特德·卡普特查克(TedKaptchuk)及其同事们给予患有肠易激综合征的试验组患者标有“安慰剂”字样的安慰剂。与无治疗的对照组相比，他们的症状显著减轻了。兰格说：“在某种程度上，每个人都意识到自己就是安慰剂。”
Langer’scancerstudyhashadtoclearthehurdlesofthreehuman-subjectsethicsboards—onefromMexico,onefromHarvard’spsychologydepartmentand,foratime,onefromtheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia’smedicalschool,whereuntilrecentlyDebuTripathy,anoncologistwhoisrecruitingsubjectsforLanger’sstudy,wasaprofessorofmedicine.InJune,progressstalledwhentheboardatU.S.C.askedthatthelanguagebetweaked.“There’ssomuchstuffthat’stotallyoutrageousinthisworld,”Langertoldmeatthetime.“Theywantmetoaddaconsentformforthepeopletosignsayingthere’snoknownbenefittothem.Butthatjustintroducesanoceboeffect!”(ThestudynowhastocleartheethicsboardattheUniversityofTexasM.D.AndersonCancerCenterinHouston,whereTripathypresentlyworks.)
LikethemeninNewHampshire,Langer’scancerpatientsinSanMiguelwillpassarichlydivertingweek.Inthiscase,artclasses,cookingclassesandwritingclasseswillhelpdistractthemfromthebrutedreadoftheircircumstancesandre-engagetheminlife.Theterroroflate-stagecancercanbeasdebilitatingasthephysicalreality,Tripathysays.Somesufferers,hesays,showsymptomsakintoPTSD.There’sstrongevidencethatthesupportofotherpeoplebooststhequalityoflifeforcancerpatients.There’slessevidencethatitimprovestheirhealthprospects.
就像新罕布什尔州研究中的老人那样，兰格的圣米格尔研究中的癌症患者也将度过精彩纷呈的一周。这一次将开设美术课、烹饪课和写作课，帮助她们分散对自己病情的极度恐惧，重新投入生活。崔帕蒂表示，像身体现实那样，对晚期癌症的恐惧本身也可能削弱患者的能力。他说，有些患者表现出类似于创伤后应激障碍(PTSD)的症状。目前已经有强有力的证据表明，其他人的支持可大大提高癌症患者的生活质量，但这种支持能够改善患者健康前景的证据相对较少。
IaskedTripathywhetherthere’sanyprecedentforwhatLangeristryingtodo.“Well,therearemanyexamplesinmedicinewhereimprovementintheemotionalstateseemsalsotobringaboutsomeimprovementinthediseasestate,”hesaid.“Weknow,forexample,thatTibetanmonkscanmeditateandlowertheirbloodpressure.Peoplewithhypertension,theyembarkonbehavioralchanges,andyoucanseetheimprovementinthemedicalindexes,likefewerheartattacks.ButcancerThat’saharderthingtofathom.”
我向崔帕蒂请教兰格试图进行的研究有没有任何先例。“嗯，医学上情绪状态的改善似乎带来病情改善的例子还挺不少的，”他说。“例如，我们知道，西藏僧侣可以通过打坐冥想降低血压。高血压患者在做出行为改变后，医学指标会有所改善，比如，心脏病发作减少了。至于癌症，那就更难说清楚了。”
Positivepsychologydoesn’thaveagreattrackrecordasawaytofightcancer.Indeed,whenJamesCoyneandcolleaguesfollowed1,093peoplewithadvancedhead-and-neckcancerovernineyears,theyfoundeventhemostoptimisticsubjectslivednolongerthanthemostpessimisticones.
积极心理学在对付癌症方面的记录并不太好。的确，詹姆斯·科因和他的同事曾经对1093名晚期头颈癌患者进行长达九年的随访，结果发现，即使是最乐观的受试者也并不比最悲观者活得长。
Somecancerpatientsrespondtointerventionsbetterthanothers,Tripathynotes.“Butevenwithhigh-dosechemotherapy,yourarelysee‘completeresponse,’whichistotaldisappearance”ofadvancedbreastcancer.“Soifwesawanythinglikethat,boy,thatwouldhitthemedicaljournalsinahurry.”
崔帕蒂指出，有些癌症患者对干预的反应好于其他人。“不过，即使是使用大剂量化疗，你也很少能看到‘完全反应’，即(晚期乳腺癌)完全消失……所以，如果我们能看到那样的结果，那很快会在医学期刊上引起轰动。”
OnedayinPuertoVallartainFebruary,Langersatonthepatioofherhillsidehome.Aniguanathelengthofaceleryribscootedacrossahighrailing,andthedogswentbananas.“That’sAda,”Langersaid.“OrisitIdaTherearetwo—it’shardtotellthemapart.”Whentheiguanasfirstappearedandbegandevouringthehibiscus,Langerwasstartled.NowsheandNancyfeedthempetalsforlunch.“That’sthewayitis,”shesaid.“Youcanbescared.Yougiveitaname,andthenit’sapet.”
2月的一天，兰格坐在她位于巴亚尔塔港的山景房的露台上。一条有芹菜茎那么长的鬣鳞蜥飞快地翻越了高高的栏杆，几只狗狂躁不已。“这是埃达，”兰格说。“是艾达吗它们有两个，很难分得清。”当鬣鳞蜥第一次出现，并开始狼吞虎咽地吃芙蓉花时，兰格吓了一跳。现在，她和南希自在地把花瓣喂给它们吃。“事情就是这样的，”她说。“你可能会害怕。你也可以给它取个名字，让它变成一只宠物。”
Langerpeeredoutoverthedeepbluesea,inthedirectionofalagoon,whereearlyinhercareersheconductedexperimentsonwhetherdolphinsweremorelikelytowanttoswimwithmindfulpeople.Inthelastfewdays,shehadbeenexchangingemailswithawriterwhowantedtocomestaywithherforacoupleofweeks,takingnotesforascreenplayforaHollywoodbiopic.
兰格凝视着环礁湖方向上深蓝色的大海，在她的职业生涯早期，她曾做实验研究海豚是否更愿意跟处于正念状态的人一起游泳。在过去的几天里，她在与一位作家互通电子邮件，那人想要和她一起待上一两个星期，为一部好莱坞传记片的剧本采集素材。
LangertoldmethatshechoseSanMiguelforhernewcounterclockwisestudyprimarilybecausethetownhadmade“anofferIcouldn’trefuse.”Agroupoflocalbusinesspeople,convincedofthevalueofhavingLanger’snameattachedtoSanMiguel,arrangedforlodgingtobemadeavailablefreetoLanger.TheyalsoencouragedhertobuildaLangerMindfulnessInstitute,whichwilltakepartinresearchandrunretreats.(Alocaldeveloperdonatedabeautifulcasa,nexttohisNickFaldo-designedgolfcourse,toserveasstaffquartersfortheinstitute.)Startingsometimenextyear,adultswillbeabletosignupforapaid,weeklongcounterclockwiseexperience,presumablywithachanceatsomeofthesamerejuvenativebenefitstheNewHampshiretestsubjectsenjoyed.
兰格告诉我，她选择在圣米格尔进行新的“逆时针”研究，主要是因为该镇提供的优厚条件让她“无法拒绝”。一群当地商人深信将兰格的名字与圣米格尔联系在一起将很有价值，于是他们为兰格的实验安排了免费住宿。他们还鼓励她建设一座兰格正念研究所(LangerMindfulnessInstitute)，既开展研究，又运营静思休养之地。(当地的一位开发商还捐赠给她一栋精美的城堡，用作研究所员工的宿舍，这座城堡位于他那由尼克·佛度[NickFaldo，英国职业高尔夫球手]设计的高尔夫球场旁边。)从明年的某个时候开始，成年人将可以报名参加为期一周的“逆时针”付费体验，想必将和新罕布什尔州实验的受试者们一样，有机会享受某些返老还童的益处。
LangersayssheisinconversationwithhealthandbusinessorganizationsinAustraliaaboutestablishinganotherresearchfacilitythatwouldalsoacceptpayingcustomers,whowilllearntobecomemoremindfulthroughavarietyofcognitive-behavioraltechniquesandexercises.ShehasalreadyopenedamindfulnessinstituteinBangalore,India,whereresearchersareundertakingastudytolookatwhethermindfulnesscanstemthespreadofprostatecancer.
兰格说，她也正在与澳大利亚的一些保健和商业组织商谈建立第二家研究机构，该机构也将接受付费客户，他们将通过多种认知行为技巧和练习来学习变得更加专注。她已经在印度班加罗尔开设了一家正念研究所，那里的研究人员正在进行一项研究，探讨正念能否阻止前列腺癌的扩散。
Langermakesnoapologiesforthepaidretreats,norforwhatwillbetheirsteepprice.(This,too,iscalculated:Intheabsenceofothercues,peopletendtoplacedisproportionatevalueonthingsthatcostmore.DanAriely,apsychologistatDuke,andhiscolleaguesfoundthatpricierplacebosweremoreeffectivethancheapones.)Tomyquestionofwhethersuchanakedlycommercialventurewillundermineheracademiccredibility,Langerrolledhereyesabit.“Look,I’mnot40yearsold.I’vepaidmydues,andthere’snothingwrongwithmakingthismorewidelyavailabletopeople,sinceIdeeplybelieveit.”
兰格不认为这种静养机构将会收费，而且价格高昂有什么错。(这一点其实也是经过盘算的：在缺乏其他暗示的情况下，人们倾向于超出比例地注重比较昂贵的东西。杜克大学[Duke]心理学家丹·艾瑞里[DanAriely]及其同事们发现，价格较高的安慰剂比便宜安慰剂更有效。)我问她，此类明显商业化的项目会不会削弱她的学术可信度兰格微微转了转她的眼睛。“你看，我不是40岁的人了。我已经做出了自己该做的贡献，再说，将它推广给更多的人并没有什么不妥，因为我深信它一定有效。”
MedicalcolleagueshaveaskedLangerifsheissettingherselfuptofailwiththecancerstudy—andperhapsunderappreciatingthepotentialsetbackstoherwork.It’salsopossiblethatsubjectswhodon’timprovecouldfeelmoredemoralizedbytheexperience.Inhermemoir,“Bright-sided,”thejournalistBarbaraEhrenreichwrotescorchinglyaboutthesunshinebrigadethatbombardedherwith“positivethinking”asshesufferedthroughbreastcancer.Underthoseconditions,patientswhodon’tgetbettermightfeelasiftheythemselvesweresomehowtoblame.
医学界的同事们问兰格，她这项癌症研究会不会弄巧成拙，害自己栽个跟头或许她低估了自己一辈子的研究成果因此遭遇挫折的潜在风险还有一个可能性是，病情没能好转的受试者因这一体验而更加意志消沉。记者芭芭拉·埃伦赖希(BarbaraEhrenreich)在她的回忆录《失控的正向思考》(Bright-sided)中，尖锐地批评了当她身患乳腺癌时，各路“阳光族”向她狂轰滥炸“积极思维”。在那种情况下，病情未见起色的患者会觉得仿佛是自己做错了什么。