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FinancialregulatorsinBritainhaveimposedaratherunusualruleonthebossesofbigbanks.Startingnextyear,anyguaranteedbonusoftopexecutivescouldbedelayed10yearsiftheirbanksareunderinvestigationforwrongdoing.Themainpurposeofthis“clawback”ruleistoholdbankersaccountableforharmfulrisk-takingandtorestorepublictrustinfinancialinstitutions.Yetofficialsalsohopeforamuchlargerbenefit:morelong-termdecision-making,notonlybybanksbutbyallcorporations,tobuildastrongereconomyforfuturegenerations.
“Short-termism,”orthedesireforquickprofits,hasworsenedinpubliclytradedcompanies,saystheBankofEngland’stopeconomist,AndrewHaldane.Hequotesagiantofclassicaleconomics,AlfredMarshall,indescribingthisfinancialimpatienceasactinglike“childrenwhopicktheplumsoutoftheirpuddingtoeatthematonce”ratherthanputtingthemasidetobeeatenlast.
TheaveragetimeforholdingastockinboththeUnitedStatesandBritain,henotes,hasdroppedfromsevenyearstosevenmonthsinrecentdecades.Transientinvestors,whodemandhighquarterlyprofitsfromcompanies,canhinderafirm’seffortstoinvestinlong-termresearchortobuildupcustomerloyalty.Thishasbeendubbed“quarterlycapitalism.”
Inaddition,newdigitaltechnologieshaveallowedmorerapidtradingofequities,quickeruseofinformation,andthusshorterattentionspansinfinancialmarkets.“Thereseemstobeapredominanceofshort-termthinkingattheexpenseoflong-terminvesting,”saidCommissionerDanielGallagheroftheUSSecuritiesandExchangeCommissioninaspeechthisweek.
IntheUS,theSarbanes-OxleyActof2002haspushedmostpubliccompaniestodeferperformancebonusesforseniorexecutivesbyaboutayear,slightlyhelpingreduce“short-termism.”InitslatestsurveyofCEOpay,TheWallStreetJournalfindsthat“asubstantialpart”ofexecutivepayisnowtiedtoperformance.
Muchmorecouldbedonetoencourage“long-termism,”suchaschangesinthetaxcodeandquickerdisclosureofstockacquisitions.InFrance,shareholderswhoholdontoacompanyinvestmentforatleasttwoyearscansometimesearnmorevotingrightsinacompany.
Withincompanies,therightcompensationdesigncanprovideincentivesforexecutivestothinkbeyondtheirowntimeatthecompanyandonbehalfofallstakeholders.Britain’snewruleisaremindertobankersthatsocietyhasaninterestintheirperformance,notjustfortheshorttermbutforthelongterm.
21.AccordingtoParagraph1,onemotiveinimposingthenewruleisto______.
[A]enhancebankers’senseofresponsibility
[B]helpcorporationsachievelargerprofits
[C]guaranteethebonusesoftopexecutives
[D]buildanewsystemoffinancialregulation
22.AlfredMarshallisquotedtoindicate______.
[A]theconditionsforgeneratingquickprofits
[B]“short-termism”ineconomicactivities
[C]governments’impatienceindecision-making
[D]thesolidstructureofpubliclytradedcompanies
23.Itisarguedthattheinfluenceoftransientinvestmentonpubliccompaniescanbe______.
[A]temporary
[B]indirect
[C]minimal
[D]adverse
24.TheUSandFranceexamplesareusedtoillustrate______.
[A]thesignificanceoflong-termthinking
[B]theobstaclestopreventing“short-termism”
[C]theapproachestopromoting“long-termism”
[D]theprevalenceofshort-termthinking
25.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthetext
[A]FrustrationofRisk-takingBankers.
[B]FailureofQuarterlyCapitalism.
[C]DecisivenessRequiredofTopExecutives.
[D]PatienceasaCorporateVirtue.
Gradeinflation—thegradualincreaseinaverageGPAs(grade-pointaverages)overthepastfewdecades—isoftenconsideredaproductofaconsumererainhighereducation,inwhichstudentsaretreatedlikecustomerstobepleased.Butanother,relatedforce—apolicyoftenburieddeepincoursecatalogscalled“gradeforgiveness”—ishelpingraiseGPAs.
Gradeforgivenessallowsstudentstoretakeacourseinwhichtheyreceivedalowgrade,andthemostrecentgradeorthehighestgradeistheonlyonethatcountsincalculatingastudent’soverallGPA.
Theuseofthislittle-knownpracticehasacceleratedinrecentyears,ascollegescontinuetodotheirutmosttokeepstudentsinschool(andpayingtuition)andimprovetheirgraduationrates.Whenthispracticefirststarteddecadesago,itwasusuallylimitedtofreshmen,togivethemasecondchancetotakeaclassintheirfirstyeariftheystruggledintheirtransitiontocollege-levelcourses.Butnowmostcolleges,saveformanyselectivecampuses,allowallundergraduates,andevengraduatestudents,togettheirlowgradesforgiven.
Collegeofficialstendtoemphasizethatthegoalofgradeforgivenessislessaboutthegradeitselfandmoreaboutencouragingstudentstoretakecoursescriticaltotheirdegreeprogramandgraduationwithoutincurringabigpenalty.“Ultimately,”saidJackMiner,OhioStateUniversity’sregistrar,“weseestudentsachievemoresuccessbecausetheyretakeacourseanddobetterinsubsequentcoursesormasterthecontentthatallowsthemtograduateontime.”
Thatsaid,thereisawayinwhichgradeforgivenesssatisfiescolleges’ownneedsaswell.Forpublicinstitutions,statefundsaresometimestiedpartlytotheirsuccessonmetricssuchasgraduationratesandstudentretention—sobettergradescan,byboostingfigureslikethose,meanmoremoney.AndanythingthatraisesGPAswilllikelymakestudents—who,attheendoftheday,arepayingthebill—feelthey’vegottenabettervaluefortheirtuitiondollars,whichisanotherbigconcernforcolleges.
Indeed,gradeforgivenessisjustanotherwaythatuniversitiesarerespondingtoconsumers’expectationsforhighereducation.Sincestudentsandparentsexpectacollegedegreetoleadtoajob,itisinthebestinterestofaschooltoturnoutgraduateswhoareasqualifiedaspossible—oratleastappeartobe.Onthis,students’andcolleges’incentivesseemtobealigned.
26.Whatiscommonlyregardedasthecauseofgradeinflation
[A]Thechangeofcoursecatalogs.
[B]Students’indifferencetoGPAs.
[C]Colleges’neglectofGPAs.
[D]Theinfluenceofconsumerculture.
27.Whatwastheoriginalpurposeofgradeforgiveness
[A]Tohelpfreshmenadapttocollegelearning.
[B]Tomaintaincolleges’graduationrates.
[C]Topreparegraduatesforachallengingfuture.
[D]Toincreaseuniversities’incomefromtuition.
28.AccordingtoParagraph5,gradeforgivenessenablescollegesto______.
[A]obtainmorefinancialsupport
[B]boosttheirstudentenrollments
[C]improvetheirteachingquality
[D]meetlocalgovernments’needs
29.Whatdoesthephrase“tobealigned”(Line5,Para.6)mostprobablymean
[A]Tocounterbalanceeachother.
[B]Tocomplementeachother.
[C]Tobeidenticalwitheachother.
[D]Tobecontradictorytoeachother.
30.Theauthorexaminesthepracticeofgradeforgivenessby______.
[A]assessingitsfeasibility
[B]analyzingthecausesbehindit
[C]comparingdifferentviewsonit
[D]listingitslong-runeffects
ThisyearmarksexactlytwocenturiessincethepublicationofFrankenstein;or,TheModernPrometheus,byMaryShelley.Evenbeforetheinventionoftheelectriclightbulb,theauthorproducedaremarkableworkofspeculativefictionthatwouldforeshadowmanyethicalquestionstoberaisedbytechnologiesyettocome.
Todaytherapidgrowthofartificialintelligence(AI)raisesfundamentalquestions:“Whatisintelligence,identity,orconsciousnessWhatmakeshumanshumans”
Whatisbeingcalledartificialgeneralintelligence,machinesthatwouldimitatethewayhumansthink,continuestoevadescientists.Yethumansremainfascinatedbytheideaofrobotsthatwouldlook,move,andrespondlikehumans,similartothoserecentlydepictedonpopularsci-fiTVseriessuchas“Westworld”and“Humans.”
Justhowpeoplethinkisstillfartoocomplextobeunderstood,letalonereproduced,saysDavidEagleman,aStanfordUniversityneuroscientist.“Wearejustinasituationwheretherearenogoodtheoriesexplainingwhatconsciousnessactuallyisandhowyoucouldeverbuildamachinetogetthere.”
Butthatdoesn’tmeancrucialethicalissuesinvolvingAIaren’tathand.Thecominguseofautonomousvehicles,forexample,posesthornyethicalquestions.Humandriverssometimesmustmakesplit-seconddecisions.Theirreactionsmaybeacomplexcombinationofinstantreflexes,inputfrompastdrivingexperiences,andwhattheireyesandearstelltheminthatmoment.AI“vision”todayisnotnearlyassophisticatedasthatofhumans.Andtoanticipateeveryimaginabledrivingsituationisadifficultprogrammingproblem.
Wheneverdecisionsarebasedonmassesofdata,“youquicklygetintoalotofethicalquestions,”notesTanKiatHow,chiefexecutiveofaSingapore-basedagencythatishelpingthegovernmentdevelopavoluntarycodefortheethicaluseofAI.AlongwithSingapore,othergovernmentsandmega-corporationsarebeginningtoestablishtheirownguidelines.Britainissettingupadataethicscenter.IndiareleaseditsAIethicsstrategythisspring.
OnJune7Googlepledgednotto“designordeployAI”thatwouldcause“overallharm,”ortodevelopAI-directedweaponsoruseAIforsurveillancethatwouldviolateinternationalnorms.ItalsopledgednottodeployAIwhoseusewouldviolateinternationallawsorhumanrights.
Whilethestatementisvague,itrepresentsonestartingpoint.SodoestheideathatdecisionsmadebyAIsystemsshouldbeexplainable,transparent,andfair.
Toputitanotherway:Howcanwemakesurethatthethinkingofintelligentmachinesreflectshumanity’shighestvaluesOnlythenwilltheybeusefulservantsandnotFrankenstein’sout-of-controlmonster.
31.MaryShelley’snovel“Frankenstein”ismentionedbecauseit.
[A]fascinatesAIscientistsallovertheworld
[B]involvessomeconcernsraisedbyAItoday
[C]hasremainedpopularforaslongas200years
[D]hassparkedseriousethicalcontroversies
32.InDavidEagleman’sopinion,ourcurrentknowledgeofconsciousness.
[A]istoolimitedforustoreproduceit
[B]canbemisleadingtorobotmaking
[C]helpsexplainartificialintelligence
[D]inspirespopularsci-fiTVseries
33.Thesolutiontotheethicalissuesbroughtbyautonomousvehicles.
[A]causeslittlepublicconcern
[B]canhardlyeverbefound
[C]isstillbeyondourcapacity
[D]hasarousedmuchcuriosity
34.Theauthor’sattitudetowardGoogle’spledgesisoneof.
[A]respect
[B]skepticism
[C]contempt
[D]affirmation
35.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthetext
[A]AI’sFuture:IntheHandsofTechGiants
[B]TheConscienceofAI:ComplexButInevitable
[C]Frankenstein,theNovelPredictingtheAgeofAI
[D]AIShallBeKillersOnceOutofControl
StateswillbeabletoforcemorepeopletopaysalestaxwhentheymakeonlinepurchasesunderaSupremeCourtdecisionThursdaythatwillleaveshopperswithlighterwalletsbutisabigfinancialwinforstates.
TheSupremeCourt’sopinionThursdayoverruledapairofdecades-olddecisionsthatstatessaidcostthembillionsofdollarsinlostrevenueannually.Thedecisionsmadeitmoredifficultforstatestocollectsalestaxoncertainonlinepurchases.
Thecasesthecourtoverturnedsaidthatifabusinesswasshippingacustomer’spurchasetoastatewherethebusinessdidn’thaveaphysicalpresencesuchasawarehouseoroffice,thebusinessdidn’thavetocollectsalestaxforthestate.Customersweregenerallyresponsibleforpayingthesalestaxtothestatethemselvesiftheyweren’tchargedit,butmostdidn’trealizetheyoweditandfewpaid.
JusticeAnthonyKennedywrotethatthepreviousdecisionswereflawed.“Eachyearthephysicalpresencerulebecomesfurtherremovedfromeconomicrealityandresultsinsignificantrevenuelossestothestates,”hewroteinanopinionjoinedbyfourotherjustices.Kennedywrotethattherule“limitedstates’abilitytoseeklong-termprosperityandhaspreventedmarketparticipantsfromcompetingonanevenplayingfield.”
Therulingisavictoryforbigchainswithapresenceinmanystates,sincetheyusuallycollectsalestaxononlinepurchasesalready.Now,rivalswillbechargingsalestaxwheretheyhadn’tbefore.Bigchainshavebeencollectingsalestaxnationwidebecausetheytypicallyhavephysicalstoresinwhateverstateapurchaseisbeingshippedto.Amazon.com,withitsnetworkofwarehouses,alsocollectssalestaxineverystatethatchargesit,thoughthird-partysellerswhousethesitedon’thaveto.
Untilnow,manysellersthathaveaphysicalpresenceinonlyasinglestateorafewstateshavebeenabletoavoidchargingsalestaxeswhentheyshiptoaddressesoutsidethosestates.SellersthatuseeBayandEtsy,whichprovideplatformsforsmallersellers,alsohaven’tbeencollectingsalestaxnationwide.UndertherulingThursday,statescanpasslawsrequiringout-of-statesellerstocollectthestate’ssalestaxfromcustomersandsendittothestate.
Retailtradegroupspraisedtheruling,sayingitlevelstheplayingfieldforlocalandonlinebusinesses.Thelosers,saidretailanalystNeilSaunders,areonline-onlyretailers,especiallysmallerones.Thoseretailersmayfaceheadachescomplyingwithvariousstatesalestaxlaws.TheSmallBusiness&EntrepreneurshipCounciladvocacygroupsaidinastatement,“Smallbusinessesandinternetentrepreneursarenotwellservedatallbythisdecision.”
36.TheSupremeCourtdecisionThursdaywill.
[A]betterbusinesses’relationswithstates
[B]putmostonlinebusinessesinadilemma
[C]makemoreonlineshopperspaysalestax
[D]forcesomestatestocutsalestax
37.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraphs2and3thattheoverruleddecisions.
[A]haveledtothedominanceofe-commerce
[B]havecostconsumersalotovertheyears
[C]werewidelycriticizedbyonlinepurchasers
[D]wereconsideredunfavorablebystates
38.AccordingtoJusticeAnthonyKennedy,thephysicalpresencerulehas.
[A]hinderedeconomicdevelopment
[B]broughtprosperitytothecountry
[C]harmedfairmarketcompetition
[D]boostedgrowthinstates’revenue
39.WhoaremostlikelytowelcometheSupremeCourtruling
[A]Internetentrepreneurs.
[B]Big-chainowners.
[C]Third-partysellers.
[D]Smallretailers.
40.IndealingwiththeSupremeCourtdecisionThursday,theauthor.
[A]givesafactualaccountofitanddiscussesitsconsequences
[B]describesthelongandcomplicatedprocessofitsmaking
[C]presentsitsmainpointswithconflictingviewsonthem
[D]citessomecasesrelatedtoitandanalyzestheirimplications
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