1、【精品文档】如有侵权，请联系网站删除，仅供学习与交流语言学第四章树形图句法.精品文档.Chapter4FromwordtoText(Syntax)Syntax(grammar)Syntaxreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaydifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestruct
2、ures.4.1SyntacticrelationsSyntacticrelationscanbeanalyzedintothreekinds:4.1.1positionalrelation4.1.2relationsofsubstitutability4.1.3relationsofco-occurrence4.1.1PositionalRelationForlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalro
3、lesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObjectPositionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,o
4、netendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,Theboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacherPositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelation
5、sobservedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways(wordorder,geneticandarealclassifications)toclassifylanguagesintheworld.Thereare6possibletypesoflanguage:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.En
7、60;manboygirlItalsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.strongmanThetallestboysmiles.prettygirlyesterday.Hewenttherelastweek.thedaybefore.ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussur
8、e,andParadigmaticRelationsbyHjemslev.Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.4.1.3RelationofCo-occurrenceItmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasente
9、nceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.4.2Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstitue
10、nts4.2.1GrammaticalConstructionAnysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes.anappleateanappleMaryateanapple4.2.2ImmediateConstituentsConstituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformacons
11、truction:thegirl(NP)atetheapple(VP)Thegirlatetheapple(S)ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)Inthecaseoftheaboveexample,iftwoconstituentsB(thegirl)andC(atetheapple)arejointedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA(hereasentenceS),thenBandCaresa
12、idtobetheimmediateconstituentsofA.TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledICanalysis.A(Sentence)BCTheboyatetheappleTwoways:treediagramandbracketingTreediagram:BracketingBracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresenting
14、uents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedword
15、swherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincludingthebasicsentence,theprepositionalphrase,thepredicate(verb+object)construction,theconnective(be+complement)construction.
16、Theboysmiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)Hehidbehindthedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)Hekickedtheball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)Johnseemedangry.(Afterdivision,theconnective
17、constructionnolongerexists.)4.2.4CoordinationandSubordinationEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:1)CoordinationCoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormoreca
18、tegoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.CoordinationofNPs:NPtheladyorNPthetiger
19、CoordinationofVPs:VPgotothelibraryandVPreadabookCoordinationofPPs:PPdownthestairsandPPoutthedoorCoordinationofAPs:APquiteexpensiveandAPverybeautifulCoordinationofSs:SJohnlovesMaryandSMarylovesJohntoo.2)SubordinationSubordinationreferstotheprocess
22、junct(oradverbial)clausesrelativeclausesJohnbelievesthattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman.(complementclause)ElizabethopenedherpresentsbeforeJohnfinishedhisdinner.(adverbialclause)ThewomanthatIloveismovingtothesouth.(relativeclause)4.3.SyntacticFunctionThe
23、syntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.4.3.1SubjectInsomelanguages,subjectreferstooneofthe
24、nounsinthenominativecase（主格）.ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin,wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase,suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples.paterfiliumamat(thefatherlovestheson)patrumfiliusamat(thesonlovesthefather)InEnglish,thesubjectofasentenc
25、eisoftensaidtobetheagent,orthedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent.Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences:MaryslappedJohn.AdogbitBill.butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples:Johnwasbittenbyadog.Johnunderwent
26、majorheartsurgery.Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice,wehavetwootherterms“grammaticalsubject”(John)and“logicalsubject”(adog).Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis“whatthesentenceisabout”(i.e.,topic).Again,thisseemstoworkformanysente
27、nces,suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow.butfailsinothers,suchas(Jackisprettyreliable,but)BillIdonttrust.AsforBill,Iwouldnttakehispromisesveryseriously.Allthreesentencesseemtobe“about”Bill;thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences.Theabove
28、sentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject.WhatcharacteristicsdosubjectshaveA.WordorderSubjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:Sallycollectsstamps.*CollectsSallystamps.B.Pro-formsThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearin
29、aspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:Helovesme.Ilovehim.Wethrewstonesatthem.Theythrewstonesatus.C.AgreementwiththeverbInthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissi
31、remainsunchanged,asinJohnstoletheQueenspicturefromtheBritishCouncil.WhostoletheQueenspicturefromtheBritishcouncilWhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehadthechanceWhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncilWheredidJohnstealtheQueenspicturefromE.TagquestionAtagquest
33、tofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject.Theboyisrunning.(process)Peterbroketheglass.(action)Janemustbemad!(state)Th
34、ewordpredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate.4.3.3ObjectObjectisalsoatermhardtodefine.Since,traditionally,subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction,objectmayrefertothe“receiver”or“goal”ofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObje
38、ngedbyhimatManchester.)4.4.CategoryThetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice4.4.1NumberNumberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordc
39、lassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural,suchasdog:dogs.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen
40、.Inotherlanguages,forexample,French,themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles.lechevalroyal(theroyalhorse)leschevauxroyaux(theroyalhorses)4.4.2GenderSuchcontrastsas“masculine:feminine:neuter”,“animate:inanimate”,etc.fortheanalysisof
41、wordclasses.Thoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender,theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases.Forinstance,inLatin,ignisfireismasculine,whileflammaflameisfeminine.Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumb
42、erofnouns,and,theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype.he:she:itprince:princessauthor:authoressInFrench,genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles.beaucadeau(finegift)bellemaison(finehouse)Lecadeauestbeau.(Thegiftisgood.)Lamaisonestbelle.(Thehouse
43、isbeautiful.)Sometimesgenderchangesthelexicalmeaningaswell,forexample,inFrench:lepoele(thestove)lapoele(thefryingpan)lependule(thependulum)lapendule(theclock)4.4.3CaseThecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbet
44、weenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.TherearefivecasesinancientGreekandeightinSanskrit.Finnishhasasmanyasfifteenformallydistinctcasesin
45、nouns,eachwithitsownsyntacticfunction.InEnglish,caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun,anditisrealizedinthreechannels:inflectionfollowingaprepositionwordorderasmanifestedinteacher:teacherswith:toamanJ
46、ohnkickedPeter:PeterkickedJohn4.4.4AgreementAgreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedca
47、tegory(orcategories).Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric（照应）,aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent,Whoseisthispen-Oh,itstheoneIlost.oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent,aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubjectandobject:Eachpersonmayhave
49、edoor(prepositionalphrase)veryfast(adverbialphrase)Thebestthingwouldbetoleaveearly.Itsgreatforamantobefree.Havingfinishedtheirtask,theycametohelpus.Johnbeingaway,Billhadtodothework.Filledwithshame,heleftthehouse.Alloursavingsgone,westartedlookin
50、gforjobs.Itsnousecryingoverspiltmilk.DoyoumindmyopeningthewindowSentence:(traditionalapproach)simpleSentencecomplexnon-simplecompoundSentence:(functionalapproach)Yes/noInterrogativeIndicativewh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptativeBasicsentencetypes:(Bolin
51、ger)Motherfell.(Nominal+intransitiveverbal)Motherisyoung.(Nominal+copula+complement)MotherlovesDad.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal).MotherfedDadbreakfast.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal+nominal)Thereistime.(There+existential+nominal)Basicsentencetype
54、.6RecursivenessRecursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination,conjoiningandembedding,hypotacticandparatactic.A
55、llthesearemeanstoextendsentences.HowlongcanasentencebeTheoretically,thereisnolimittotheembeddingofonerelativeclauseintoanotherrelativeclause,solongasitdoesnotbecomeanobstacletosuccessfulcommunication.Thesameholdstruefornominalclausesandadverbialclau
56、ses.ImetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenewJohnssisterJohnssistershusbandJohnssistershusbandsuncleJohnssistershusbandsunclesdaughter,etc.thathouseinBeijingthegardenofthatho